What we know about per- and polyfluoroalkyl contamination levels in milk. A review from the last decade

Due to its nutritional value and versatility, milk is recognized to be one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide, with a forecasted global consumption of 356 million tons in 2025. Recent updates in legislation and the assessment of their toxicological effects increased attention to the determination of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), classified as “forever pollutants” for their stability and environmental spread in foods. The present review aims to collect all the information related to milk contamination reported by the scientific literature over the last decade and address the PFAS contamination levels around the globe. Twenty-two studies were found to be published about the detection of PFASs in milk in the period considered in this review, with a total of 824 analyzed samples on a global scale and a maximum of 60 investigated analytes. This review confirms that PFASs, including PFOA and PFOS, are detected in milk worldwide. However, the wide variability in reported concentration levels highlights a critical lack of consistent data and underscores the absence of coordinated, large-scale monitoring programs. This gap in surveillance significantly limits our understanding of actual exposure risks and reinforces the urgent need for comprehensive, systematic research across different regions and production systems.