Human geomorphology in high mountain environment: 200 years of landscape transformation at Stelvio Pass (Central Alps, Italy)

The Stelvio Pass (2,758 m a.s.l., Central Italian Alps) represents a critical example of long-term human modification of high-mountain geomorphic systems. Here, we combine multitemporal aerial and satellite imagery (1959–2023), land use/land cover (LULC) analysis, and field-based geomorphological mapping to assess the extent and impacts of anthropogenic transformation in the area. Since the mid-20th century, infrastructure development—including ski facilities, roadworks, and artificial reservoirs—has led to widespread slope reconfiguration, terrace construction, and hydrological alteration. These modifications have affected periglacial dynamics, contributing to the formation of thermokarst depressions, active-layer thickening, and permafrost destabilisation. Between 1959 and 2023, landscape fragmentation increased significantly, with a cumulative effect on geomorphic connectivity and slope stability. Vegetation monitoring highlights delayed colonisation on reworked substrates, influenced by compaction and poor soil development. The emergence of anthropogenic–periglacial systems underline the role of persistent human disturbance in driving geomorphic change. Our findings highlight the need for integrated monitoring and land management strategies to mitigate geomorphic hazards in climatically sensitive alpine environments.