Semi-quantitative characterization of volatile organic compounds in indoor and outdoor air using passive samplers: a case study of Milan, Italy

This study presents a semi-quantitative characterization of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations and their emission sources in indoor and outdoor environments across four residential and laboratory sites in Milan, Italy, during the summer of 2024. Radiello® passive samplers (Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri in Padova, Italy) were employed for VOC collection, followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis. The semi-quantitative mean total VOC (TVOC) concentration was 220.8 ± 195.4 µg/m3 for the outdoor air and slightly higher at 243.6 ± 134.3 µg/m3 for the indoor air, resulting in an indoor-to-outdoor relative ratio of 1.10. The outdoor VOC profile was dominated by hydrocarbons, accounting for 80.3% ± 4.6% (173.2 ± 143.8 µg/m3) of TVOCs, followed by aromatic hydrocarbons at 13.3% ± 5.5% (37.2 ± 49.7 µg/m3). Indoors, hydrocarbons also predominated, representing 34.1% ± 15.2% (95.2 ± 80.1 µg/m3) of the TVOCs, followed by terpenes at 20.7% ± 15.5% (49.0 ± 46.4 µg/m3). Other VOC groups contributed smaller fractions in both environments. The emission profiles from cleaning and personal care products were assessed semi-quantitatively to determine their relative percentage contributions to the indoor VOCs. Source attribution was further supported by diagnostic relative ratios—benzene/toluene, toluene/benzene, and (m + p)-xylene/ethylbenzene—which provided insight into dominant emission sources and photochemical aging.