It is today widely agreed that the ancient Greek world was not only the cradle of democracy, but also of the idea of citizenship, political participation, civic rights and obligations. Such ideas form the base of our understanding of political and democratic life. These values have for a long time been considered only in relation to one single political horizon, that of the polis in the ancient Greek world, and the national state in the modern world. However, both in the ancient world and today, one can be a citizen of two or more countries at the same time. In antiquity, individuals could hold citizenship in more than one polis and, since the consolidation of Roman rule in the Greek East, one could be a local (Greek) citizen and a Roman citizen at the same time.
This project aims at reconsidering our understanding of ancient Greek citizenship in the Roman Empire by exploring multiple citizenship—namely, the practice of holding citizenship in several cities, often in addition to Roman citizenship—which spread in the Greek world since the Late Classical and Hellenistic period and became frequent in the cities of western Asia Minor during the Imperial period.
In general, Roman Asia Minor was a cosmopolitan world, in which the political horizon of the polis was no longer the only border citizens knew. By the second century CE, epigraphic and literary sources suggest that an increasing number of Greek citizens in the East held citizenship in several poleis. Holders of multiple citizenships were mainly members of the elites,1 but there is also evidence for several categories of professionals, such as physicians, architects, artisans, and athletes. 2 Citizenship grants could be conferred as a reward for benefactions to the city (this is the case for wealthy benefactors, euergetai) or to professionals, as a means of integrating them into a new civic community. One could also hold “federal citizenship” within leagues of cities (koina). Moreover, during the first two centuries of Empire, the Greek elites became increasingly integrated in the provincial administration, often receiving grants of Roman citizenship. Greek local citizenship, thus, overlapped with Roman “global” citizenship. In a way, the Roman Empire compelled the Greek cities to renegotiate their idea and practice of citizenship. These aspects urge us to reconsider Greek citizenship in the context of the Roman empire. Despite recent work,3 a systematic collection and analysis of the evidence for multiple citizenship in the Roman period remain still a desideratum. Above all, questions regarding the overlapping and intersections of different citizenships still need to be properly addressed. For a long time, in fact, acquired Greek citizenships have been regarded merely as honorific titles, which were devoid of any practical implications and irrelevant to questions of identity and political discourse.4 But a closer consideration of the problem reveals that this understanding overlooks the impact that acquired citizenship had on individual careers in several sectors (administration, commerce, sport) and, most importantly, it downplays the impact of citizenship in defining membership in several communities (Greek poleis) and in a cosmopolitan space (the Empire). We the need to overcome the idea that Greek citizenship can be defined only as a form of active status of sharing in the polis and taking part in the polis institutions, which is mostly of Aristotelian origin, and the assumption that local citizenship is an exclusive status defining individual identity.5 At the same time, we are still far from understanding the impact of multiple citizenship on the sphere of jurisdiction, specifically, in the case of conflicts and legal disputes.6 In general, the juridical status of multiple citizenship holders is unclear, and the project will explore both the juridical status of holders of multiple Greek citizenships and the legal position resulting from the intersection of Greek with Roman citizenship. Collaborations with colleagues working in the field of Roman Law from the Departments of Law will be crucial to this aspect of the project.
Moreover, the spreading of Christian religion from the 1st century AD onwards contributed to enhancing the idea of membership in a ‘global community’, (i.e. that of Christians) rather than a local community of citizens of the polis. While subordinating the notion of membership in a civic community to that of membership in the community of Christians, Christians also extensively drew on the GraecoRoman civic practice and civic vocabulary in order to structure their own communities. Thus, a further aspect that deserves to be explored is the impact of the Graeco-Roman notion of citizenship on the shaping of a Christian discourse of citizenship and membership in the (religious) community.7 For this last aspect, which amounts to an important part of the project, the PI seeks the collaboration of a scholar working on early Christian communities, to be hired as a fixed-term researcher (Rtd-A).
The chronological limits of this project are set between the second century AD and AD 212 – the year in which Caracalla’s edict extended Roman citizenship to almost all the free inhabitants of the Empire. Later authors and epigraphic sources (until VI century AD) will be considered in relation to question of the Christian notion of citizenship and the legacy of the Graeco-Roman civic practice in Christian thought. The geographical focus are the regions of Pontus-Bithynia and Lykia, but further evidence from western Asia Minor will also be considered. These territories stand out as very interesting cases for approaching the question of multiple citizenship. First, they are characterised by a wellestablished urban organisation, consolidated by a centuries-long tradition of polis-culture. More extensively than in territories such as Egypt and Syria, the presence of Greek cities in western Asia Minor predates to a good extent the expansion of Alexander the Great. The notion and practice of citizenship was deeply rooted by the time Alexander the Great and, later, the Romans, extended their rule. Second, the presence of leagues of cities (koina), the practice of euergetism, grants of honorary citizenship and agreements of isopoliteia (i.e. shared civic rights) between cities made multiple citizenship in these regions a widespread phenomenon. Third, differently from mainland Greece, contacts with Rome did not bring about the decline or the end of pre-existing political organisations. The case of federations (koina) shows this very clearly: in mainland and insular Greece major part of the koina and ethne which are attested since the Classical and Early Hellenistic period seem to go through a gradual loss of their political meaning during the conflicts with Rome in the second century BC. In some cases, as the Achaean koinon, they even cease existing (146 BC). By contrast, the koina of Asia Minor face a period of political liveliness under Roman rule, becoming part of the political system of the Empire, as the case of the Lycian koinon shows. Several koina in Asia Minor are attested from the first century CE onwards, following the creation of new provinces in the Late Republic and Early Principate, such as Bithynia-Pontus (64/63 BC), Galatia (25 BC), Kappadocia (18 CE).8 The Greek elites of these regions appear to be actively engaged not only in cumulating Greek citizenships, but also in pursing grants of Roman citizenship.
As a source material this project will look both at literary texts and inscriptions. It will be articulated into two main research units. The first unit will study Greek multiple citizenships and the overlapping of Greek and Roman citizenship. The second unit will focus on the impact of Graeco-Roman citizenship on the Christian discourse of citizenship.
This project aims at reconsidering our understanding of ancient Greek citizenship in the Roman Empire by exploring multiple citizenship—namely, the practice of holding citizenship in several cities, often in addition to Roman citizenship—which spread in the Greek world since the Late Classical and Hellenistic period and became frequent in the cities of western Asia Minor during the Imperial period.
In general, Roman Asia Minor was a cosmopolitan world, in which the political horizon of the polis was no longer the only border citizens knew. By the second century CE, epigraphic and literary sources suggest that an increasing number of Greek citizens in the East held citizenship in several poleis. Holders of multiple citizenships were mainly members of the elites,1 but there is also evidence for several categories of professionals, such as physicians, architects, artisans, and athletes. 2 Citizenship grants could be conferred as a reward for benefactions to the city (this is the case for wealthy benefactors, euergetai) or to professionals, as a means of integrating them into a new civic community. One could also hold “federal citizenship” within leagues of cities (koina). Moreover, during the first two centuries of Empire, the Greek elites became increasingly integrated in the provincial administration, often receiving grants of Roman citizenship. Greek local citizenship, thus, overlapped with Roman “global” citizenship. In a way, the Roman Empire compelled the Greek cities to renegotiate their idea and practice of citizenship. These aspects urge us to reconsider Greek citizenship in the context of the Roman empire. Despite recent work,3 a systematic collection and analysis of the evidence for multiple citizenship in the Roman period remain still a desideratum. Above all, questions regarding the overlapping and intersections of different citizenships still need to be properly addressed. For a long time, in fact, acquired Greek citizenships have been regarded merely as honorific titles, which were devoid of any practical implications and irrelevant to questions of identity and political discourse.4 But a closer consideration of the problem reveals that this understanding overlooks the impact that acquired citizenship had on individual careers in several sectors (administration, commerce, sport) and, most importantly, it downplays the impact of citizenship in defining membership in several communities (Greek poleis) and in a cosmopolitan space (the Empire). We the need to overcome the idea that Greek citizenship can be defined only as a form of active status of sharing in the polis and taking part in the polis institutions, which is mostly of Aristotelian origin, and the assumption that local citizenship is an exclusive status defining individual identity.5 At the same time, we are still far from understanding the impact of multiple citizenship on the sphere of jurisdiction, specifically, in the case of conflicts and legal disputes.6 In general, the juridical status of multiple citizenship holders is unclear, and the project will explore both the juridical status of holders of multiple Greek citizenships and the legal position resulting from the intersection of Greek with Roman citizenship. Collaborations with colleagues working in the field of Roman Law from the Departments of Law will be crucial to this aspect of the project.
Moreover, the spreading of Christian religion from the 1st century AD onwards contributed to enhancing the idea of membership in a ‘global community’, (i.e. that of Christians) rather than a local community of citizens of the polis. While subordinating the notion of membership in a civic community to that of membership in the community of Christians, Christians also extensively drew on the GraecoRoman civic practice and civic vocabulary in order to structure their own communities. Thus, a further aspect that deserves to be explored is the impact of the Graeco-Roman notion of citizenship on the shaping of a Christian discourse of citizenship and membership in the (religious) community.7 For this last aspect, which amounts to an important part of the project, the PI seeks the collaboration of a scholar working on early Christian communities, to be hired as a fixed-term researcher (Rtd-A).
The chronological limits of this project are set between the second century AD and AD 212 – the year in which Caracalla’s edict extended Roman citizenship to almost all the free inhabitants of the Empire. Later authors and epigraphic sources (until VI century AD) will be considered in relation to question of the Christian notion of citizenship and the legacy of the Graeco-Roman civic practice in Christian thought. The geographical focus are the regions of Pontus-Bithynia and Lykia, but further evidence from western Asia Minor will also be considered. These territories stand out as very interesting cases for approaching the question of multiple citizenship. First, they are characterised by a wellestablished urban organisation, consolidated by a centuries-long tradition of polis-culture. More extensively than in territories such as Egypt and Syria, the presence of Greek cities in western Asia Minor predates to a good extent the expansion of Alexander the Great. The notion and practice of citizenship was deeply rooted by the time Alexander the Great and, later, the Romans, extended their rule. Second, the presence of leagues of cities (koina), the practice of euergetism, grants of honorary citizenship and agreements of isopoliteia (i.e. shared civic rights) between cities made multiple citizenship in these regions a widespread phenomenon. Third, differently from mainland Greece, contacts with Rome did not bring about the decline or the end of pre-existing political organisations. The case of federations (koina) shows this very clearly: in mainland and insular Greece major part of the koina and ethne which are attested since the Classical and Early Hellenistic period seem to go through a gradual loss of their political meaning during the conflicts with Rome in the second century BC. In some cases, as the Achaean koinon, they even cease existing (146 BC). By contrast, the koina of Asia Minor face a period of political liveliness under Roman rule, becoming part of the political system of the Empire, as the case of the Lycian koinon shows. Several koina in Asia Minor are attested from the first century CE onwards, following the creation of new provinces in the Late Republic and Early Principate, such as Bithynia-Pontus (64/63 BC), Galatia (25 BC), Kappadocia (18 CE).8 The Greek elites of these regions appear to be actively engaged not only in cumulating Greek citizenships, but also in pursing grants of Roman citizenship.
As a source material this project will look both at literary texts and inscriptions. It will be articulated into two main research units. The first unit will study Greek multiple citizenships and the overlapping of Greek and Roman citizenship. The second unit will focus on the impact of Graeco-Roman citizenship on the Christian discourse of citizenship.